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Articles |
Departments of
1
Pathology and
2
Biochemistry, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405.
a Address for correspondence: Department of Pathology, University of Vermont, Colchester Research Facility, 55A South Park Dr., Colchester, VT 05446. Fax 802-656-8965; e-mail rtracy{at}moose.uvm.edu
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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0.05
(i.e., the smallest percentage change unlikely to be due to analytical
variability or CVI) was calculated as 118%, and the index
of individuality, CVI/CVG, was 0.46. This
suggests that CRP, like many clinical chemistry analytes, has limited
usefulness in detecting early disease-associated changes when used in
conjunction with a healthy reference interval. From a molecular
epidemiological standpoint, the usefulness of CRP in longitudinal
studies is suggested by the small index of individuality and by
observations that (a) short-term fluctuations were
infrequent, (b) all data stayed within the reference
interval, and (c) relative rankings of the subjects over 6
months only moderately deteriorated.
Key Words: indexing terms: inflammation • cardiovascular disease • variation, source of • index of individuality • critical difference • molecular epidemiology
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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There is also interest in using CRP to monitor low-level acute-phase response to chronic atherosclerotic disease and in determining whether CRP concentrations can predict risk of coronary heart disease in population studies (5)(6)(7)(8)(9). However, many current CRP assays were designed for use in clinical settings associated with relatively severe inflammation and lack the sensitivity to assess CRP in healthy populations (10). Little is known about the correlates of CRP in healthy subjects, and we are aware of only one study of CRP variability (11).
Here we report our development of a simple, reproducible ELISA for CRP and our use of this assay to determine a reference interval for CRP and assess the sources of variability of this analyte in a healthy population.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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-aminocaproic
acid-N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (Biotin-X-NHS), human CRP,
and anti-CRP rabbit IgG from Calbiochem-Novabiochem, La Jolla, CA. We
obtained 5 mol/L sulfuric acid, from Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, NJ;
citric acid (anhydrous powder), polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan
monolaurate (Tween 20), and Nunc Maxisorp (immuno-) microtiter plates
from J. T. Baker/VWR Scientific, Rochester, NY; bovine serum albumin
(RIA-grade Fraction V; BSA), NaHCO3,
Na2CO3, NaCl, Na2HPO2,
N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), EDTA (tetrasodium salt),
H2O2 (300 g/L solution), and
o-phenylenediamine from Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO;
and peroxidase-labeled avidin–biotin complex (ABC) from Vector Labs.,
Burlingame, CA. All other reagents were of the highest grade available. CRP was biotinylated as follows: human CRP, previously dialyzed in 100 mmol/L NaHCO3 adjusted to pH 8.5 with 5 mol/L HCl, was combined with activated biotin at the rate of 100 µL of 44 mmol/L biotin in dry DMF per milliliter of 100 mmol/L NaHCO3 containing 10 mg of the protein. The biotin had been activated by combining biotin and DMF in a glass container, 2.0 mg of Biotin-X-NHS per 100 µL of dry DMF. The biotin/DMF, 4.0 µL, was added to 400 µg of previously dialyzed CRP and reacted with gentle agitation for 4 h at room temperature. The resulting biotinylated CRP was dialyzed overnight in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS; 40 mmol/L Na2HPO4 and 130 mmol/L NaCl, adjusted to pH 7.4 with 5 mol/L HCl) and then stored at -20 °C in 500 g/L glycerol solution.
Purity of the human CRP and the biotinylated product was assessed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate and 2-mercaptoethanol, according to Laemmli (12). Both CRP and biotinylated CRP produced a single molecular mass band corresponding to CRP subunits (Mr 23 037) (13).
assay protocol
Coating antibody (rabbit IgG to human CRP) was diluted to 2.75
mg/L in sodium carbonate buffer (16 mmol/L
Na2CO3, 34 mmol/L NaHCO3,
adjusted to pH 9.5 with 5 mol/L HCl) and pipetted, 200 µL per well,
into a Nunc Maxisorp microtiter plate. The plate was covered with tape
and incubated for 18 h at 4 °C. Unoccupied binding sites on the
plate were then blocked for 2 h with 250 µL per well of PBS plus
20 g/L BSA, pH 7.4. Plasma samples, controls, calibrators, and
biotinylated CRP were diluted in diluent buffer: PBS plus 1.0 g/L Tween
20, 20 g/L BSA, and 5 mmol/L EDTA, pH 7.4. Plasma samples were assayed
at 10-fold dilution. We used a nine-point calibration curve beginning
at 10 mg/L CRP and diluted threefold serially. Biotinylated CRP, stored
at -70 °C in aliquots adequate for use with one assay plate, was
determined to work in this assay at a dilution of 54 000-fold. After
washing the wells twice with PBS plus 1.0 g/L Tween 20, pH 7.4, we
loaded the plates with 100 µL per well of diluted samples, controls,
and calibrators and then rapidly added 100 µL per well of diluted
biotinylated CRP. The plate was agitated briefly, covered with tape,
and incubated overnight at 4 °C.
Freshly prepared horseradish peroxidase-conjugated ABC (ABC reagent) was prepared by adding 1 drop of reagent A and 1 drop of reagent B per 21 mL of PBS-Tween 20 (PBS + 1.0 g/L Tween 20), pH 7.4, and then incubating for 60 min at room temperature. After washing the assay plates four times with PBS-Tween 20, we added 200 µL of ABC reagent per well and incubated the assay plate for 90 min. We repeated the washing procedure and added to each well 200 µL of substrate solution: freshly prepared o-phenylenediamine diluted to 0.2 g/L in citrate buffer (0.1 mol/L citric acid, 0.2 mol/L Na2HPO4, adjusted to pH 5.0 with 25 mol/L NaOH) and activated by addition of 0.039 g/L H2O2. After incubating the plate for 30 min at room temperature in the dark, we stopped the enzymatic reaction with 4 mol/L H2SO4, 50 µL per well. The color formed was read at 490 nm.
For assay standardization, we used purified human CRP that was calibrated against the 1st International CRP Standard (85–506; established in 1986 by the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization, and available from the National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Herts EN6 3QG, UK).
blood samples
Blood samples were collected from seated volunteers with use of a
free-flowing blood-draw and a maximum 2-min tourniquet application. The
blood was immediately stored on ice and centrifuged within 60 min for
at least 30 000 g-min. Plasma was then stored at
-70 °C. Samples were also obtained from the American Red Cross
under the same conditions except that volunteers were given the option
to lie prone for the blood draw. All procedures were approved by the
University of Vermont Committees on Human Research.
For a study of CRP in 143 healthy individuals, blood samples were collected in a citrate–phosphate–dextrose–adenine erythrocytes preservative solution from Baxter-Senwall (Roundlake, IL). For assay validation and variability studies, we used blood samples drawn into serum tubes, citrate-containing blood-collection tubes (0.129 mol/L of citrate/citric acid, one-tenth total volume), and EDTA (K3)-containing tubes, all from Becton Dickinson (San Jose, CA). We also used SCAT-1 tubes, which contain 200 000 kIU/L aprotinin, 25 µmol/L D-phenylalanyl-prolyl-arginyl-chloromethyl ketone (PPACK), and 4.5 mmol/L EDTA, and SCAT-2 tubes, which contain 25 µmol/L PPACK and 11 mmol/L citrate/citric acid (both from Hematological Technologies, Essex Junction, VT). We have used these tubes frequently for studies of coagulation factors, where thrombin activity must be minimized (14).
population studies
Citrated plasma samples from 143 blood donors, ages 18 to 67 (69
women and 74 men), were acquired from the Vermont–New Hampshire Red
Cross Center, Burlington, VT. For comparison of CRP concentrations and
erythrocyte sedimentation rates, we used citrated plasma samples from
the Clinical Coagulation Laboratory of Fletcher Allen Health Care.
For a study of CRP variability, 26 individuals (10 male, 16 female) recruited from the university community came into the NIH General Clinical Research Center at Fletcher Allen Health Care for a single fasting phlebotomy in the early morning, at 3-week intervals, for a total of eight visits. Each subject was questioned briefly as to state of health. Blood was collected into one citrate tube and one SCAT-1 tube. In addition, four individuals recruited from our laboratory provided morning blood samples twice a week for 8 weeks; a light breakfast was recommended if the fasting state could not be maintained. These subjects' blood was collected in SCAT-1 tubes and processed as described above.
other assays
In addition to the ELISA, we also determined CRP with the Magiwell
CRP kit (United Biotech, Mountain View, CA), according to
manufacturer's directions. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate was
determined in the Clinical Coagulation Laboratory. Cholesterol was
measured with an Ektachem E-700 dry-film analyzer (Johnson & Johnson
Clinical Diagnostics, Rochester, NY).
statistical analyses
Calibration curves were generated by using the four-parameter
fitting algorithm of Titercalc data reduction software
(Hewlett-Packard, Sunnyvale, CA). CVs based on control pool values were
calculated as (SD/mean) x 100%. Pearson correlation coefficients were
generated by using the linear regression subroutine of GBSTAT
statistical software (Dynamic Microsystems, Silver Spring, MD) and were
compared with one another as described by Snedecor and Cochran
(15). Where mean values were compared, we used Student's
t-test (paired samples, two-tailed). Nonparametric
statistical tests were used for data that were not gaussian in
distribution.
The 0.95 nonparametric interfractile interval for a study of reference
values for CRP was calculated with SPSS statistical software (Marija J.
Norusis/SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Analysis of the biovariability data
was done as described by Fraser and Harris (16). Three CVs
were calculated, representing analytical, within-subject, and
between-subject variation (CVA, CVI, and
CVG, respectively). We also calculated the index of
individuality (CVI/CVG); the index of
heterogeneity, i.e., the ratio of CVI to the theoretical CV
([2/(n - 1)]1/2, where n = average number of
time points); and the critical difference, i.e., the percentage
difference in value that is significant at P 0.05:
2.77 x (CVA2 +
CVI2)1/2. Before these
calculations, we applied three levels of outlier tests to remove
outlier points (as described in (16)). Four points were
identified and removed from the total of 200 points.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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In the interest of minimizing interplate variability, we prepared multiple aliquots of coating antibody, assay calibrator, and biotinylated CRP, each sufficient for one plate, and stored them at -70 °C. Human CRP, 1.9 mg/L, was added to 25 citrated, reference plasma samples. The average analytical recovery (±SD) was 97.9% ± 22.1% (range 46.7–128.8%); 20 of the 25 samples showed recoveries between 75% and 125%. In several experiments we have consistently observed a small number of samples with relatively poor recovery but as yet have no explanation for this.
Intraassay variability was assessed by assaying a single citrated plasma pool 40 times; the mean value was 0.80 mg/L and the CV was 3.0%. Interassay variability was determined by assaying three plasma controls (including one lyophilized lot) once each per plate for 25 plates divided into four assay runs. The mean values of the controls were 1.05, 2.52, and 2.08 mg/L, and the interassay CVs were 5.7%, 6.8%, and 5.5%, respectively. Diurnal changes (0845 vs 1545 h) in CRP were evaluated by assaying citrated plasma from nine healthy subjects; however, the median values for samples collected at each time were the same, 0.93 mg/L CRP, indicating no significant diurnal variation (P = 1.00; Wilcoxon matched pairs signed-rank test).
Reference values for CRP were determined by the methods described by
Solberg (17)(18) and recognizing the work of
the IFCC Expert Panel on the Theory of Reference Values. For citrated
plasma samples collected from 143 healthy individuals, the median CRP
concentration was 0.64 mg/L and the 0.95 interfractile interval was
0.08–3.11 mg/L. The median for the 74 men was 0.64 mg/L (range
0.02–3.25 mg/L) and for the 69 women was 0.63 mg/L (range 0.07–3.24
mg/L), indicating no major gender difference. Stratification of data
into subgroups, according to the method of Harris and Boyd
(19), on the basis of gender was thus not required. The
distribution of CRP values for this healthy group (Fig. 1
) was nongaussian but was reasonably well normalized by
log10 transformation. The Pearson correlation coefficient
(r) between log10-transformed CRP values and age
was 0.20 (P 0.02), indicating a relatively weak, but
significant, positive age association for CRP in healthy middle-aged
persons.
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To compare sample types we have used in various epidemiological studies, we obtained serum, SCAT-1 plasma, SCAT-2 plasma, EDTA plasma, and citrate plasma samples from six individuals. Median values were: serum, 0.65 mg/L; SCAT-1, 0.61 mg/L; SCAT-2, 0.65 mg/L; citrate, 0.58 mg/L; and EDTA, 0.70 mg/L. These values were significantly different (Friedman's test, P = 0.002), primarily because of the values from the citrate tubes (P = 0.028, Wilcoxon matched pairs signed-ranks test: serum vs citrate plasma). We thought it likely that values were lower in sodium citrate tubes because of the 9:1 dilution of sample by the liquid sodium citrate. This was confirmed by linear regression analysis, where: citrate CRP = 0.84 x serum CRP - 0.02 mg/L (r = 0.974, P = 0.003, n = 6).
In a freeze/thaw experiment, we thawed once, twice, three, and four times samples of citrated plasma, SCAT-1 plasma, serum, SCAT-2 plasma, and EDTA plasma from at least five individuals, and then assayed for CRP with the ELISA. No significant differences in mean values were found for any individual or any anticoagulant type, indicating that CRP is stable to multiple freeze/thaw cycles.
We compared our CRP ELISA with other assays for acute-phase reaction. Between CRP and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate in 14 patients' serum samples obtained over 24 h from our clinical hematology laboratory, r = 0.68. For CRP ELISA (y) vs CRP Magiwell (x), linear regression of results for plasma samples from 27 healthy individuals showed excellent correlation (r = 0.94, P <0.0001), although the values from our assay were systematically lower than those reported by the commercial method: y = 0.62 (SE 0.05) x + 0.41 (SE 0.09) mg/L.
Figure 2
shows the CRP values for 26 individuals from whom samples were
obtained every 3 weeks for 8 time points. All values were below the
clinical cutoff of 10 mg/L (20), and values for some
individuals were more tightly grouped than for others; nonetheless, it
is clear that over this 6-month period individuals tended to have
relatively stable CRP values. For example, CRP concentrations for
subject 10 tended to be high at each blood drawing, whereas those for
subject 19 were relatively low.
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In a second study, involving a shorter sampling interval, plasma
samples were obtained from 4 healthy individuals twice a week for 8
weeks (Fig. 3
; one individual only had 6 time points). These data support the
first data set, in that two individuals appeared to have relatively low
values throughout the study, whereas two others had relatively high
values (although still below the generally accepted clinical cutoff of
10 mg/L). Also, these data indicate the presence of short-term
fluctuations (i.e., single points that seem high), even though all data
stayed below the clinical cutoff.
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To determine the consistency of the relationships between the 26
individuals, we correlated the values for the first blood draw to the
values for the second blood draw, the third, and so forth. Table 1
shows that the values from the first blood draw correlated with
the values from the later blood draws about as well as (or better than)
they did with the values from the earlier blood draws, as judged by the
Pearson correlation coefficient and the Spearman rank correlation
coefficient. Both statistical methods gave similar results, although
the raw data tend to be better correlated than the rankings were. A
total of three high CRP values (attributable to respiratory infections)
were removed from blood draws 2, 3, and 4. A test of significance
showed that, in both Pearson and Spearman analyses, the first
correlation coefficient differed from the second, third, and last but
not from the other three (P 0.05). Regression analysis
revealed no significant trend in r values over time for
either the Pearson or the Spearman coefficients.
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Statistical analysis according to the method of Fraser and Harris
(16) was performed to determine the components of
variability. After removal of the outlier points, values for
analytical, within-subject, and between-subject CVs were computed and
are shown in Table 2
, along with values from the one other study of CRP variability
we found in the literature. For comparison with a commonly measured
epidemiological analyte, we also determined cholesterol concentrations
in these same samples.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The immunoassay we developed is easy to perform with commercially available materials and correlates well with a commercial assay. However, these two assays appear to be standardized differently, given that the slope of the regression line comparing the assays was not 1.0. Because we used WHO Reference Material 85–506 for standardization, the source of this difference in absolute values is unclear.
The median value for CRP in this study was 0.64 mg/L, the 0.95 interfractile reference interval 0.08–3.11 mg/L. These values are slightly lower than those of Kindmark (26), which are often quoted as 0.20–6.10 mg/L. However, our results are still consistent with the generally held clinical position that 10.0 mg/L is a cutoff for significant inflammatory disease (20).
The meaning of CRP concentrations in the range of 3.0–10.0 mg/L is not well understood at this time. Values in this area, or even values in the higher portion of the healthy reference interval, could represent minimal inflammatory activity in some or all individuals. Chambers et al. have shown that CRP does increase in minimal experimental inflammation but often stays within the reference interval (27). From an epidemiological standpoint, we are interested in knowing whether values in the higher portion of healthy reference interval, possibly representing slight but important CVD-associated inflammation, are associated with any additional risk for CVD.
Concerning variability from an epidemiological standpoint, our data
suggest that over a 6-month period CRP values appear relatively tightly
regulated, with some individuals having consistently higher values than
others. Although some values ranged upwards for an individual for one
measurement (e.g., individual 6, Fig. 2
), these changes were transient.
The shorter-term study (Fig. 3
) supports this consistency. Even with a
much shorter sampling interval (every 3–4 days), individuals still
appeared to have consistent, and consistently different, CRP values.
Whether this regulation is under the same cytokine control as occurs in inflammation, or whether some other mechanism is in play, is unknown. Given our recent observations in a population of healthy individuals of a strong correlation between CRP and another protein believed to be regulated to a large extent by interleukin-6, fibrinogen (R. Tracy, unpublished), we believe there is significant coregulation in the absence of overt inflammation and that cytokines are important in regulating the concentrations of these proteins in healthy individuals.
The calculated values for CVA, CVI, and
CVG are similar to those values reported by Clark and
Fraser (11), confirming their observation that a CRP
measurement value, used in conjunction with a CRP reference interval,
is less than optimal for use in diagnosis, especially of early disease.
A relatively large CVG, coupled with a relatively small
CVI (yielding a low value for the index of individuality),
means that many individuals can have early disease-associated changes
that do not exceed the reference interval. The calculated "critical
difference" (at P 0.05) between two serial values for
CRP they determined to be 175% (11), whereas we
calculated a critical difference of 118%—again supporting the
position that relatively large changes in CRP are required before one
can feel certain that the change is significant. This difference in
critical difference values is due to the smaller within-subject
variance in our group compared with theirs, which is reflected in the
smaller index of individuality.
Fraser and Harris have reviewed the clinical uses of laboratory tests
and the ways in which variability affects the usefulness of a test
(16). However, our interests in molecular epidemiology
differ, in some ways, from those of the clinical laboratorian. For
example, the characteristics of CRP just mentioned, i.e., small
CVI, large CVG, can be advantageous for the
commonly used epidemiological technique of linear regression. Under
some circumstances, an increased "spread" of the data may give this
technique more power to detect small, but nonetheless important,
correlations with other variables. For comparison purposes, Table 2
includes data we generated for cholesterol at these same time points.
Although cholesterol values are also characterized by a relatively
small CVI and large CVG, cholesterol is
extremely important from a molecular epidemiological standpoint.
Variability data may be incorporated into multivariate prediction
models, as suggested by Liu (28), although this is not yet
commonly done in molecular epidemiological research.
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Acknowledgments |
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Footnotes |
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References |
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N. S. Jenny, N. D. Yanez, B. M. Psaty, L. H. Kuller, C. H. Hirsch, and R. P. Tracy Inflammation Biomarkers and Near-Term Death in Older Men Am. J. Epidemiol., March 15, 2007; 165(6): 684 - 695. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. S. Jenny, A. M. Arnold, L. H. Kuller, R. P. Tracy, and B. M. Psaty Serum Amyloid P and Cardiovascular Disease in Older Men and Women: Results from the Cardiovascular Health Study Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., February 1, 2007; 27(2): 352 - 358. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. A. Lange, C. S. Carlson, L. A. Hindorff, E. M. Lange, J. Walston, J. P. Durda, M. Cushman, J. C. Bis, D. Zeng, D. Lin, et al. Association of Polymorphisms in the CRP Gene With Circulating C-Reactive Protein Levels and Cardiovascular Events JAMA, December 13, 2006; 296(22): 2703 - 2711. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 E. Barinas-Mitchell, L. H. Kuller, K. Sutton-Tyrrell, R. Hegazi, P. Harper, J. Mancino, and D. E. Kelley Effect of Weight Loss and Nutritional Intervention on Arterial Stiffness in Type 2 Diabetes Diabetes Care, October 1, 2006; 29(10): 2218 - 2222. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S F P Man, J E Connett, N R Anthonisen, R A Wise, D P Tashkin, and D D Sin C-reactive protein and mortality in mild to moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Thorax, October 1, 2006; 61(10): 849 - 853. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. L. Bryson, K. J. Mukamal, M. A. Mittleman, L. P. Fried, C. H. Hirsch, D. W. Kitzman, and D. S. Siscovick The Association of |
